In Is Policy-Based Access Control (PBAC) an Authorization Model?, I argued that PBAC gets compared to Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) and Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) as if it belonged in the same category, when it actually answers a different question.

RBAC and ABAC describe what data a decision is based on: a role, an attribute. PBAC describes how that decision gets made: through a centralized policy engine instead of logic wired into the application. One is about the shape of the rule. The other is about where the rule lives and who evaluates it.

In my opinion, treating them as competing options is like comparing a recipe to a kitchen.

That distinction attempted to solve one specific confusion, but it left a bigger one untouched: PBAC isn’t the only term that gets misfiled this way.

Mandatory Access Control (MAC) and Discretionary Access Control (DAC) get compared to RBAC and ABAC too, even though they describe who administers the rules, not what the rules look like.

Access Control List (ACL) and Relationship-Based Access Control (ReBAC) show up in the same breath as “authorization models,” but one is arguably a special case of the other, depending on which paper you read.

The terminology around authorization has accumulated for decades across access control research, identity vendors, and standards bodies, and a lot of it answers different questions while using the language of a single one: “what model is this?“

This piece generalizes the model-versus-architecture distinction into a full taxonomy. Instead of asking “which authorization model is this system using?“, I want to ask five narrower questions about any authorization system, answer each one independently, and only then see where familiar labels like RBAC, ABAC, MAC, and PBAC actually land. If the terms stop competing once they’re placed on the right axis, that’s a sign the axes are doing real work.

The Core Problem of Authorization

Authorization answers one question: can this subject perform this action on this object? A user reading a file, a service calling an API, a process writing to a database. Every authorization decision reduces to that same triple: subject, action, object.

In the simplest possible system, there’s no decision to make because there’s no separation between the party asking and the party deciding. Picture your own diary, kept in a drawer in your own room. You want to read it, so you open the drawer and read it. Nobody has to grant you permission, because nobody else is involved: wanting and getting are the same act.

Real systems rarely stay this simple, because the thing being accessed usually belongs to more than one interested party. Put that same diary in a house with housemates, or move it into a company’s filing cabinet, and the picture changes immediately. Not everyone who wants to open the drawer should be allowed to, and somebody has to decide, case by case, who does and who doesn’t.

A resource server does exactly that job for software. A multi-tenant SaaS application, an internal API, a cloud storage bucket accessed by dozens of services: all of them need something that looks at a request and decides whether to honor it. That “something” is what the rest of this piece is about, and it turns out to have more moving parts than a single word like “RBAC” or “PBAC” can capture.

How an Authorization Request Gets Processed

Follow a single authorization request through a resource server and a consistent set of stages emerges, regardless of the specific technology involved: a request arrives, the server gathers context about the user and the resource, a policy evaluates that context against a rule. The evaluation produces an allow or deny decision, and the server enforces that decision by letting the request through or rejecting it.

The same five stages appear in essentially every authorization system:

1. Someone defines the rules. A developer hardcodes a check; a security team writes a policy; a resource owner sets sharing permissions on their own file.
2. The rules take some concrete shape. A conditional in application code; a JSON document; an XACML policy; a row in a spreadsheet someone exports into a database table.
3. Some data has to feed the decision. The user’s role; the department listed in a database; the time of day; the relationship between the requesting user and the resource’s owner.
4. A decision gets computed. The rule and the data get evaluated together, producing allow or deny.
5. The decision gets enforced. Something has to actually act on the result: block the request or redirect it.

These five stages map onto a vocabulary that’s been around in access control architecture for a while:

• Policy Administration Point (who defines the rules)
• Policy Information Point (what data feeds the decision)
• Policy Decision Point (where the decision gets computed)
• Policy Enforcement Point (where it gets enforced)

Brossard’s overview of ABAC architecture lays out this PAP/PIP/PDP/PEP breakdown in more detail, and it’s worth reading if these terms are new.

There’s a related, more academic framing worth pulling in here, from a 2022 systematic literature review of authorization and access control research by Mohamed, Auer, Hofer, and Küng. The paper draws a ladder with four levels: an authorization strategy (discretionary, mandatory, or hybrid) sits above an authorization model (the subjects, objects, and other components a system reasons about), which sits above an authorization policy (the concrete rule instance). In parallel, an access control model (the logic for deciding allow/deny) is enforced by an access control mechanism (the actual running software). It’s a rigorous way of saying the same thing this piece is arguing: strategy, model, policy, and mechanism are separate layers, and conflating them is where the terminology breaks down.

None of these five stages, by themselves, tells you whether a system “is RBAC” or “is PBAC.” Each stage is actually a separate question, with its own independent set of answers. That’s the seed of the classification below.

A Consistent Classification

Six axes cover the five stages above (Authorization Policy gets split from Authorization Model, since a model can be instantiated by more than one kind of concrete policy artifact). Each axis has a small number of common answers, and every familiar term (ACL, RBAC, ABAC, ReBAC, MAC, DAC, PBAC) is really an answer to one specific axis, not a label for the whole system.

A useful way to keep the six axes distinct is a metaphor borrowed from outside software entirely: the machinery of law. A legislature drafts rules, the rules get written down as statutes, courts weigh those statutes against the facts of a case, and police carry out the verdict. Swap “legal system” for “authorization system” and the same six jobs reappear below, one at a time.

Authorization Administration: who sets the rules?

Before a rule can be evaluated, someone has to have the authority to write it in the first place. That authority can be concentrated in one place or spread across many, and a system’s answer here is independent of what the rules actually say. Authorization administration can be:

• Centralized: a security team or administrator defines rules for everyone. This is the pattern behind MAC (Mandatory Access Control): access is determined by a central authority, not by the resource owner.
• Decentralized: the owner of a resource decides who else can access it. This is DAC (Discretionary Access Control): the classic “share this file with these people” pattern.
• Hybrid: some rules come from a central authority, others from individual resource owners, layered together.

Mohamed et al’s literature review treats strategy this way too, and their comparative analysis is instructive: when they classified access control models against this axis, RBAC, ABAC, and ReBAC families all landed in the hybrid category, not cleanly in DAC or MAC. That’s a useful data point on its own. It confirms administration strategy is genuinely independent of authorization model: a role-based system can be centrally administered, owner-administered, or both, and it’s still RBAC either way.

The legal system runs on exactly this split. A parliament, or a king under older systems, legislates for an entire population: centralized administration. Two neighbors agreeing on where a fence line runs, or a homeowner deciding who gets a key, is decentralized administration, closer to how contract law and property law actually work. Most real legal systems mix both, the same way most authorization systems do.

Authorization Model: what data type drives the decision?

Once the authority to write a rule is settled, the next question is what the rule actually reasons about: the specific kind of information a decision checks each time it runs. This is the axis most people mean when they say “authorization model,” and it’s the one my earlier PBAC article focused on. Here are a few common authorization models:

• Identity-based (ACL): the decision checks whether the specific subject appears on a list attached to the object.
• Role-based (RBAC): the decision checks whether the subject holds a role that’s been granted the requested permission.
• Attribute-based (ABAC): the decision checks attributes of the subject, object, action, or environment against a rule (department = “finance”, clearance ≥ “secret”, time between 9 AM and 5 PM).
• Relationship-based (ReBAC): the decision checks the relationship between subject and object, often by traversing a graph (is this user a member of the team that owns this document?).

It’s worth being honest about the fuzziness here. Depending on which academic source you read, ACL and RBAC can be described as special cases of ABAC, where the attribute in question happens to be identity or role membership. These four categories are the most useful cut for a working taxonomy, not a claim that the categories are mutually exclusive at the mathematical level.

The law makes the same kind of distinction between what a rule is actually about. Constitutional and administrative law usually define who may act by office, “only the president may sign this treaty“, which is role-based. Regulatory law more often reaches for attributes, “any business with revenue over ten million dollars must file this report“. Family and contract law hinge on a relationship: spouse, parent, business partner. And a law or injunction naming one specific person or company is the legal equivalent of an ACL. Different areas of law reach for different criteria for the same reason different authorization systems do: each criterion fits a different kind of decision.

Authorization Policy: what shape does the rule take?

Once a model is chosen, it still has to be written down somewhere as a concrete artifact:

• Hardcoded conditionals in application code.
• A structured document (JSON, YAML) loaded and interpreted at runtime.
• A declarative policy language purpose-built for authorization, like XACML, Rego (Open Policy Agent), or Cedar.
• A row in a database table.

This axis matters because two systems can share the same authorization model (both are RBAC) while differing completely in maintainability, auditability, and who’s allowed to change the rules, purely because of how the policy is expressed.

In the legal metaphor, this is simply the law itself: the actual text of the statute or code, independent of who passed it and independent of which area of law it belongs to.

Authorization Information: where does the decision-relevant data come from?

A rule is only as good as the data it’s evaluated against, and that data doesn’t all arrive the same way. It’s worth separating what the rule depends on from how the system actually gets its hands on it:

• Wired in: the data is already available in the application’s normal request flow, no extra lookup required.
• Token-based: the data arrives as claims in a JWT or similar credential, populated by the identity provider at issuance time.
• Looked up: the application queries a database, directory, or external service at decision time.
• Environmental: the data describes the context of the request itself rather than the subject or object: time, location, device posture, network.

This is a place where even careful academic treatments blur a real distinction. Mohamed et al’s framework folds environmental attributes into the authorization model’s component list, alongside subjects and objects, rather than treating “where does this data physically come from at runtime” as its own architectural concern. I think that’s a small version of the same mistake the PBAC article calls out: knowing that a decision depends on “time of day” is a modeling question but knowing that the request has to make a network round-trip to a directory service to get it is an architecture question, with real consequences for latency and failure modes.

A courtroom depends on the same kind of input: facts and events. Testimony, documents, timestamps, prior records. The same law applied to a different set of facts produces a different verdict, exactly the way the same policy applied to different token claims or different database lookups produces a different authorization decision. And, just as in an authorization system, where those facts come from (a witness on the stand, a document requested via subpoena, or an expert report) is its own separate concern from what the law says.

Authorization Decision: how and where is the decision computed?

Once a rule and its data are both available, something has to actually run the evaluation. That “something” can live in a few different places, and where it lives is a question about architecture, not about the rule itself:

• Wired into application code: an if statement or a framework-native permission check inline with the business logic.
• A dedicated library or module: decision logic factored out but still running inside the application process.
• A centralized policy engine: a separate service that receives context and returns a decision, often shared across many applications.

PBAC lives here, not on the “authorization model” axis. Centralizing the decision point into a policy engine is an architectural choice about where evaluation happens, and it’s compatible with any of the authorization models: a PBAC engine can evaluate role-based rules, attribute-based rules, or a mix. That’s exactly why PBAC isn’t a peer of RBAC and ABAC. It’s an answer to a different question than the one RBAC and ABAC answer.

This is where the courtroom metaphor lands squarely: a court, and specifically a judge, is the decision engine. The law and the facts go in, a verdict comes out. And a legal system’s habit of routing different kinds of cases to different, specialized courts (traffic court, family court, a supreme court) without changing what the underlying law says is a good picture of what PBAC actually is. It’s a choice about which court hears the case, not a change to the law itself.

Authorization Enforcement: how and where is the decision enforced?

A decision only matters if something acts on it, and that action doesn’t have to happen in the same place the decision was made. Authorization enforcement can live in:

• Wired into application code: the same code path that made the decision also acts on it.
• Dedicated middleware: a framework-level component intercepts the request based on the decision.
• Distributed enforcement: a gateway, sidecar, or proxy enforces decisions at the network edge, independent of the application itself.

Like the authorization decision axis, this is architecture, not model. A system enforcing ABAC decisions through an API gateway and a system enforcing ABAC decisions through inline middleware are both, unambiguously, ABAC. They just made different choices about where enforcement lives, usually driven by concerns like operational scale or the number of services that need to share one policy.

This is the police, in the metaphor: the verdict gets carried out regardless of whether that happens inside the courtroom or on a street corner miles away. The court decides; the police act. It’s the same separation between authorization decision and enforcement in an authorization system.

Putting it together

A real authorization system’s full description is a tuple across all six axes, not a single word. “RBAC” says something about the authorization model axis and nothing about the other five axes. An authorization system can have:

• Centralized administration (MAC)
• Role-based model (RBAC)
• JSON policy documents
• Token-based information
• A shared policy engine (PBAC architecture)
• Gateway-level enforcement.

That’s a coherent, common real-world setup, and every label in it is accurate simultaneously, because each one answers a different question. The confusion in most authorization discussions comes from picking one label per system and treating it as exhaustive, when it’s really just the answer to whichever axis happened to come up first in the conversation.

The legal metaphor running through this section is useful precisely because it breaks down in the same places the software terminology does. Nobody would call a law court an “administrative law” or claim the existence of a “witness-based law” because a judge renders a verdict considering the deposition of a witness. But the six jobs underneath it (who legislates, what kind of law applies, what the law actually says, what facts it’s applied to, who judges, who enforces) are as separable in a courtroom as they are in a policy engine, and confusing them causes the same kind of category error either way.

Conclusion

The terminology problem in authorization isn’t that the field lacks vocabulary. If anything, it has too much: MAC, DAC, RBAC, ABAC, ReBAC, ACL, PBAC, and more, each coined by a different paper, standard, or vendor, at a different layer of the same request lifecycle. The problem is a habit of treating all of it as one flat list of “authorization models” to choose between, when most of these terms don’t compete with each other at all.

Separating the questions helps in a very practical way when you’re actually choosing an approach for a real system: pick the authorization model based on what your access rules naturally depend on (roles, attributes, relationships). Separately, pick the architecture (where decisions get made and enforced) based on your operational constraints (how many services need to share policy, how much latency you can tolerate, who needs to audit or change rules). Those are two separate decisions with two separate sets of tradeoffs and bundling them into a single choice (“we’re doing PBAC” or “we’re doing RBAC“) tends to hide half of what actually needs deciding.

None of this makes the individual labels wrong. RBAC is a real, useful description of a model. PBAC is a real, useful description of an architecture. They’re just not describing the same thing, and a consistent classification is what lets you say precisely which thing each one is.

References

• Is Policy-Based Access Control (PBAC) an Authorization Model?
• A Taxonomy of Modern Authorization Models
• The State of the Union of Authorization
• A systematic literature review for authorization and access control: definitions, strategies and models. International Journal of Web Information Systems, 18(2/3), 156-180. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJWIS-04-2022-0077

Andrea Chiarelli is a Principal Developer Advocate at Auth0 (Okta). He has extensive experience in software development, holding various technical roles. In recent years, he has focused on Identity, developing a passion for the core concepts, which he aims to disseminate to developer communities.

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Many organizations hear from vendors, thought leaders, and perhaps strange women lying in ponds who distribute swords that they need to get to “Zero Trust.”  Zero trust as a marketing term has exploded over the past few years, and it feels like everywhere you look, the term is being used, but very little is being said on what it means—and indeed, what it means to identity. It would be prudent then to understand what is meant by zero trust, select a model that provides a basis by which a zero trust architecture may be achieved, and dig into the ramifications of the model chosen for identity.

What is Zero Trust?

Zero Trust is broadly defined by many sources. For instance, Gartner couches Zero Trust within the context of networks, stating, “Zero trust network access (ZTNA) is a product or service that creates an identity—and context-based, logical access boundary around an application or set of applications.” The UK’s NCSC also defines it within this context of networks-—they offer that “A zero trust architecture is an approach to system design where inherent trust in the network is removed.” If we are to believe NIST SP 800-207 (Zero Trust Architecture), it is “the term for an evolving set of cybersecurity paradigms that move defenses from static, network-based perimeters to focus on users, assets, and resources.” Given the spread of definitions, we should look to synthesize these definitions to provide a holistic perspective.

• Zero trust seeks to eliminate implicit trust.
• Zero trust seeks to make access determinations that are identity, context, and resource-driven.
• Zero trust seeks to move past using static network configurations as a defense.

What is Implicit Trust?

Implicit trust, put simply, is where actions taken between systems, users, and other resources are allowed due to some facet of their relationship with each other. In an extremely simple example, a database within a traditional, organizationally managed data center may have a line of sight from a network perspective to hundreds of other systems because of the tasks the database helps those systems perform. These in-datacenter systems may have a common set of administrators, and one of these administrators may have access to a laptop that uses a VPN client to get into the data center remotely for management, specifically that database. These systems then share a tremendous degree of implicit trust- an attacker who gets access to the administrator’s laptop could potentially do immense damage to a number of systems because each system in the chain has put some degree of faith in the next one down the line. Ransomware, in particular, exploits implicit trust, utilizing whatever tools it can to move laterally within an organization to cause as much damage as possible.

What Do Zero Trust Folks Mean When They Say “Identity,” “Context,” and “Resource”?

When we speak of identities in a zero-trust context, we refer to both traditional users (as in people) and non-person entities (such as machine accounts used for programmatic access). These identities must have appropriate context, meaning they must meet specific conditions (e.g., time of day, location, compliance to specific requirements identified by the organization, attributes, role-based access signifiers, etc.) to perform a given operation. Resources are objects an organization possesses that are subject to access determinations, such as applications, workflows, systems, assets that respond and conform to logical access (such as doors), and so on. We describe all of this to indicate that a user, in certain contexts, has access to perform actions on specific resources.

What Happens to the Network?

The network, as we understand it, still exists. However, the focus shifts from hardening the perimeter of a network to securing resources. Typical implementations focus on identities sufficiently authenticating and having sufficient authorization (by having appropriate context), with these entitlements being dynamic and assessed continuously such that if the identity no longer meets requirements, access is terminated immediately; if the identity is sufficiently authenticated and authorized, it is allowed access to the resource for that specific interaction. Each interaction with a given resource requires a new and separate assessment; prior successful assessments do not indicate future success. The common terminology used for the interaction of identity to resource under this model is “microsegmentation”—to effectively construct a network segment from resource to resource and dynamically assign it based on context.

What Models Are There of Zero Trust?

While vendors quickly provide their own view of zero trust, few (if any) have provided comprehensive models that outline critical functions necessary to achieve such a state in a distributed computing environment. Various countries and blocs, such as the UK and the EU, have offered either broad guidance (https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/zero-trust-architecture) or pay lip service to it in reports (https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2021-0313_EN.html) but few government-sponsored and independent reference models have been put forward. The US Government has offered some guidance on this across its agencies, notably NIST by way of its work in the NCCoE (https://www.nccoe.nist.gov/projects/implementing-zero-trust-architecture) as well as NIST SP 800-207, and the Department of Defense with its Zero Trust Reference Architecture (henceforth the DoD ZTRA). While all of the NIST SPs are great reading on this subject, let’s focus for a bit on the DoD ZTRA.

An Extremely High-Level View of the DoD ZTRA for Identity

The DoD ZTRA asserts that zero trust’s goal is to protect data. It does this through the interrelated nature of six separate focus areas: User, Device, Network/Environment, Applications/Workload, Visibility/Analytics, and Automation/Orchestration. The DoD ZTRA asserts that conditional authentication and authorization are critical to each focus area and provides a figure that offers capabilities related to those areas. See Figure 1 for their highlighted capabilities.

Figure 1: Authentication and Authorization Capability Taxonomy. Source: DoD ZTRA

A point that the DoD ZTRA really drives home with this figure, as well as the other capability taxonomies and capabilities outlined, is that authentication and authorization need to be driven into every decision possible, as close as possible to the point of decision. These authentication and authorization decisions need to be constant, fine-grained, adaptive, and provide rapid mechanisms for restricting access should it become incongruent with a user’s standard use patterns.

The DoD ZTRA indicates that a service external to the previously mentioned focus areas, known as the “Enterprise Identity Service” (EIS), should be utilized at the control plane to facilitate this. The EIS is made up of three capabilities: the Enterprise Federated Identity Service (EFIS), Automated Account Provisioning (AAP), and the Master User Record (MUR). At a high level, these capabilities map to federated authentication and authorization, identity governance/lifecycle management, and the aggregation of contextually important attributes for a given entity (person or otherwise) for the purposes of driving those authentication and authorization decisions. Examples include credentials, roles, attributes defining access classifications, policy/context-driving attributes (such as a risk score for a given user), and so on.

This begs a question of scale: is the DoD ZTRA meant to construct one system to rule them all?  Not necessarily. To quote the DoD ZTRA on this, “DoD enterprise ICAM service providers provide one or more services that support ICAM capabilities. A service is defined as DoD enterprise if it can be used by anyone across the DoD, and, for externally facing federation services, by any DoD mission partner”. The document goes on to define requirements for these service providers, as well as DoD component organization requirements. Ultimately, there will be many implementations of an EIS across the DoD. In these many implementations, they will be able to best meet the needs of the mission while still conforming to the goal of eliminating implicit trust wherever possible.

A goal of this externalized service is then to be reusable and interoperable- while the DoD does not provide specifics around each service, it is to be assumed that an EIS for a given DoD organizational component should be able to communicate effectively to every other DoD organizational component and mission partner as it needs to. If this were not the case, the DoD would be back to building stovepipe systems- systems with limited scope and function, possessing data that, by the nature of the system, is difficult to use outside of the system. Identity commonly falls into this trap, where a given system owner may wish to implement their own flavor of an identity capability with a custom schema or custom relationship model.

In Summary

There should be minimal surprise when we see that the DoD ZTRA offers no revolutions in security or identity thought. It is instead a synthesis of practices that identity and security practitioners have been pointing towards as being critical for years. Whether the people who perform integrations across the federal government take this guidance to heart remains to be seen. It is this author’s hope that given time and appropriate space the DoD ZTRA will not act as the final word on the topic but is merely the beginning of the conversation with respect to integrating sound identity practices into large and distributed organizations.

Author Bio

Rusty Deaton has been in Identity and Access Management for over a decade. He began in technology as a technical support engineer for a Broker-Dealer and has since worked across many industries, carrying forward a passion for doing right by people. When not solving problems, he loves to tinker with electronics and read. He currently works as Federal Principal Architect for Radiant Logic.

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Identity and Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights enshrines the concept of recognition as a person before the law as a fundamental human right. Digital identity is a new aspect of that fundamental right, a topic covered by Elizabeth Garber and Mark Haine in the white paper “Human-Centric Digital Identity: for Government Officials.” This right has also inspired the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Model Governance Framework for Digital Legal Identity System. 

Source: UNDP Digital Legal ID Governance website – https://www.governance4id.org/ 

Digital Identity and the United Nations

It might seem like a big stretch to go from our day-to-day worries about our IAM systems to a governance framework designed for governments worldwide to adapt as they build their digital identity programs, but it’s happening. The UNDP argues that there is a significant social and economic benefit for governments to digitize their identity programs and close the identity gap. Just in financial services alone, a strong digital public infrastructure is expected to speed up growth by 20-33%. 

Think about it. Our little corner of the world, which focuses on a specialty so young you almost certainly don’t have a degree in it, is now a core aspect of global economic growth!

Eight Core Themes

So, what does the UNDP’s framework look like? As expected of the UN, they are taking a broad approach that considers all elements of society. Specifically, they offer guidance on:

• Equality and Non-Discrimination
• Accountability and the Rule of Law
• Legal and Regulatory Framework
• Capable Institutions
• Data Protection and Privacy
• User Value
• Procurement and Anti-Corruption
• Participation and Access to Information

The UNDP model comes from their legal identity AND digital public infrastructure efforts, which is the right combination of organizations to bring together. Digital transformation is a bit of a buzzword, and yet, that’s what is happening. The UNDP is trying to help provide some guidance so countries are at least somewhat going in the same direction. They’ve already noted that there are at least as many failed identity programs as successful ones, usually because of inadequate governance. 

Digital identity always comes down to governance.

Applying the Framework

We can always learn from others, and we have an opportunity, regardless of what sector we work in, to learn from the UNDP framework. While targeted towards governments and civil society, there is quite a bit here that the public sector can apply to their IGA programs. The need to take into account as a foundational principle the need to support equity and diversity is one example. Another is ensuring the systems and programs are adequately funded and clear of undue influence. 

Wrap Up

So why is this a Letter from Leadership post (which we’re also posting to the blog)? Because identity governance is our space and everyone in this organization has an opportunity to be a leader in ensuring the identity programs they are part of are well-designed and developed. So, as one leader to the next (that’s you), I hope you take a few moments to think about this bigger picture and how you can make the governance of the identity systems around you better.

Author

Heather Flanagan, Acting Executive Director and Principal Editor for IDPro (and Principal at Spherical Cow Consulting) comes from a position that the Internet is led by people, powered by words, and inspired by technology. She has been involved in leadership roles with some of the most technical, volunteer-driven organizations on the Internet, including the IETF, IAB, and IRTF as RFC Series Editor, ICANN as a Technical Writer, and REFEDS as Coordinator, just to name a few. If there is work going on to develop new Internet standards, or discussions around the future of digital identity, she is interested in engaging in that work.

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